Executive Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Executive Summary - Essay Example oxical upon close analysis by paying particular attention to the growth and development of the Smit Company which specialises in a range of ship based services. A brief historical overview of the company, founded in 1842 by Fop Smit, shows that it has a history filled with many remarkable achievements which were mainly inspired by the company’s long-time slogan ‘any job, any sea’. For instance in 1896, Smit was the first company in the world to tow a ship dock overseas, from Rotterdam to Angola, even though there were no suitable ocean-going tugboats available. More recently, it raised the Japanese Vessel which had sunk in deep waters. All these achievements bear testimony that the company has a remarkable success story in its operations. However, what is paradoxical in this case is that those who were responsible for running it had very little interest in doing extensive strategic analysis in their day to day operations. It can be noted that from 1921 to 1980, the period the company was run by two members of the Smit family, first Murk Lels and then Piet Kleyn van Willigen, it witnessed steady, lucrative growth from power to power. Though these had a strong entrepreneurial streak, they did not extensively invest in strategic analyses. In their own view, business was always potentially lucrative when it promised significant sales. They were motivated by the entrepreneurial attitude of ‘get up and go’ which has been the major factor driving the growth of Smith throughout most of the 20th century, leading the company to enter many new foreign markets and new lines of business. This is contrary to the widely held belief during the contemporary times that it is important to first do a strategic analysis of the market to determine if the business would be profitable in the future. A strategic analysis would involve establishing the potential of the business. This would take into consideration the strengths and weaknesses of a new market. After the last

Coup in Honduras of 2009 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Coup in Honduras of 2009 - Research Paper Example At the same time, the 2009 Honduras coup demonstrated the weakness of inter-American system of conflict settlement, as well as the absence of political will on the side of the U.S. to live up to its own commitment to promoting the principle of legitimate elected government in the Western Hemisphere. The presidency of Manuel Zelaya proved to be marred by constant conflicts between the executive branch of government and the Congress and judiciary, with the latter being bitterly opposed to the redistributive economic policies proposed by the president. Even though Zelaya had been known as a relatively conservative politician before his election on 27 November 2005 , the program of reforms his government embarked on from 2006 onwards was roughly modeled on the measures undertaken by Chavez administration in Venezuela. Among the most prominent policy steps taken by Zelaya government, one should include such measures as the increase in minimum wage, the governmental efforts at modernizing the telephone system, and the general attempts at increasing the well-being of the socially disadvantaged strata of population. The populist socioeconomic program undertaken by Zelaya, nonetheless, relied on the growth in bureaucratic apparatus directly controlled by the president, which led to increase in corruption and notable authoritarian tendencies in the conduct of the government. The fact that the implementation of Zelaya’s policies coincided with the first shots of the global economic crisis being experienced as early as the late 2006, did not add efficiency to his government. Moreover, Zelaya’s foreign policy, which was aimed at limiting traditional ties with the U.S. and launching closer partnership with Venezuela and Bolivia within such inter-governmental structures and bodies as ALBA, alienated the wide strata of Honduran population that were opposed to increased entente with Chavez, as well as the traditional political elites that feared further ‘soc ialist’ policies and resented breaking ties with the U.S. The last factor that led to coalescing of anti-Zelaya forces around conservative opposition and the military was the president’s efforts at revising the national constitution that became the source of controversy in March to June 2009. On 23 March Zelaya declared his attention to add the fourth ballot to the future election that was to be held in November 2009. The president’s intention was that of convening the constituent assembly that was to revise the constitution of Honduras. A preliminary poll for ascertaining the desirability of convening the constitutional assembly was due to be held on 28 June 2009, according to Zelaya’s plans. The media controlled by traditional oligarchy launched an anti-Zelaya campaign, while the government made use of its new powers to impose pro-government reporting on some national media3. The resulting controversy pitted the key national political forces – th e Conservatives and Liberals – against each other, while the Liberal Party found itself split

Women and Sexism at Workplace Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Women and Sexism at Workplace - Assignment Example Over the years, there have been a number of different roles that have been followed by men and women and have been considered to be the prehistoric roles of the people. However, when such assumptions are made and the roles for people are limited to a few tasks, then the result often leads to sexism. This paper aims at discussing the effects of sexism on women in two main areas, i.e. entering into a workplace and progress within the workplace. The main aim of the research is to get a better idea of how women are affected due to the existence of sexism in the workplace. The society has set down a various number of rules and roles that are expected to be for women. Women are faced with issues in getting jobs at the workplaces as there are a number of restrictions and reservations on the end of the employers. Employers prefer not to spend on the female employees for training and other purposes as there are very high chances of the women to leave the job so they can take care of their families (About Equal Opportunities, 2010). As seen in the survey, the youth and younger generation today, unlike the previous generations do not consider men’s work to be more important than that of women and there is a constant need for more equality and better understanding among the people.  These issues and difficulties include the possible offensive male chauvinist comments that can be faced by women as well as other questions where the employers demean the women by judging them to be less effective than men.  

Pros and Cons of exercising Essay Example for Free

Pros and Cons of exercising Essay Question 3: Do you agree that exercising is the only way to keep fit and healthy? When it comes to the the phrase ‘a healthy lifestyle’, many people often think of the gym as the only way to keep your body in shape. It seems difficult for them to achieve, and is often seen very negatively. However, exercising is not the only way. In fact, there are many ways to keep fit and healthy, such as having a regular diet, having enough rest, and keeping a positive mindset. Having a regular diet is one of the simplest yet hardest way to keep fit. It requires one to adjust the way they eat, and be cautious of their food intake. However, it may not seem as difficult as it may seem to be. For example, fish and chips seems very unhealthy, but there are ways to make it healthier. Baking it instead of deep-frying it, and just adding a few vegetables to go along with your meal would be an easy way to â€Å"neutralize† your unhealthy food. Make a few simple changes to your diet, and you would soon feel much healthier. To make sure your body has abundant energy to do your daily activities, having enough rest is very important. While you rest, your brain stays busy, and prepares you for the next day. Minimal deprivation of sleep takes a toll on your mood, energy, and ability to handle stress. Adults should sleep betweeen 6-7 hours each day. However, if one is not getting average sleep time, it is best to catch up on weekends where there is no work. Sleep should not be deprived of as it can affect your mental state, energy level and ability to focus. Lastly, having a postitive mindset can help boost one’s morale or motivation spirit. When one is postive about his or her life, he or she would be able to solve obstacles they face with ease as they are able to find ways to solve their problems rather than just dwelling over it. This helps keep both the mind and brain healthy. Rather than thinking that life is unfair, one should appreciate the many things that one has.

Running :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this study, I investigate the affects that running has on reducing the risk of some health problems. I am doing this because I run about 40 to 60 miles per week, and my family has a history of health problems. For instance, my grandfather suffered a heart attack, and he also had cancer when he was about the age of 50. Furthermore, my grandfather, on my dad’s side of the family, has also had triple bi-pass heart surgery from a heart attack he has had recently.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Here, I present information from some sources that talk about the affects that running has on reducing health risks. My sources agree that running, and some other aerobic exercises, reduce the risk of: Diabetes, diverticular disease, heart decease, several types of cancer, and even common sicknesses like a cold.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One source agrees that running reduces the risk of diabetes. Jim Harmon writes, in Sports Illustrated, about Bruce Leonard, a marathoner with a masters degree in public health. Bruce Leonard went to study the Zuni Indian tribe. This tribe has had a bad history of diabetes until they started to run. Leonard said, After the Zuni tribe started running, â€Å"many Zuni were able to reduce or eliminate their diabetes medication.†(5)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My research also reveled that diverticular disease can be reduced in men that run. For instance, Marty Munson and Teresa Yeykal writes in the article â€Å"Outrun trouble† which says, â€Å"guys who racked up the most ours doing vigorous exercise reduced their risks of diverticular decease by a third.†(38) They also say â€Å"it’s good advice to make your lifestyle to consume high fiber.†(38) I found that running can also reduce the risk of heart disease. The article â€Å"Run for your life† talks about Mitchell H. Whaley, the director of adult physical fitness program at Ball State University. He analyzed data collected from a group of men, which included runners. Mitchell Whaley found that â€Å"individuals with low aerobic capacity have a higher risk of developing premature coronary artery decease that those who were more fit.†(47) The article also talks about Martha L. Slattery, Ph.D., from the University of Utah Medical School. Maria Slattery also found that running is a good preventive measure for heart disease. She says, â€Å"The greatest increase in protection was between those men who were sedentary and those who had some activity.†(48)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another source I found says that running can help prevent many types of cancer. In the article â€Å"Running for your life†, Doctor Leonard Cohen talks about how running helps reduce colon,

Geneva Conventions Essay

Introduction Now we live in relatively peaceful time, but it wasn’t always like that. All those wars were bloody, sometimes even too bloody, so people needed to create some rules. So those rules were created. Four Conventions for One Purpose Not everybody knows that, but there were four treaties, not just one. And even then, they were modified later with three amendment protocols. I will start with a brief overview. First Geneva Convention was adopted in 1864 for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field. Second Geneva Convention was adopted in 1906 for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea. Third Geneva Convention was adopted in 1929, and it was related to the Treatment of Prisoners of War. Finally, Fourth Geneva Convention was adopted in 1949, and it was related to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. It collected all points of previous one while adding many new points. So, when people say about singular Geneva Convention, they usually mean this one. Later is was modified with two protocols in 1977 when modifications were related to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts and the Pro tection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts. Latest modification was made in 2005 when an Additional Distinctive Emblem was adopted. The Conventions are inextricably linked to the International Committee of the Red Cross, which is both the instigator for the inception and enforcer of the articles in these conventions. They changed the world with their aspiration to protect the rights of non-combatants. This quote is a nice example: Protected persons are entitled, in all circumstances, to respect for their persons,  their honour, their family rights, their religious convictions and practices, and their manners and customs. They shall, at all times, be humanely treated, and shall be protected, especially against all acts of violence or threats thereof and against insults and public curiosity. Women shall be especially protected against any attack on their honour, in particular against rape, enforced prostitution, or any form of indecent assault. Without prejudice to the provisions relating to their state of health, age and sex, all protected persons shall be treated with the same consideration by the Party to the conflict in whose power they are, without any adverse distinction based, in particular, on race, religion or political opinion. However, the Parties to the conflict may take such measures of control and security in regard to protected persons as may be necessary as a result of the war. — Article 27, Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) The First Geneva Convention The First Geneva Convention, for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field, defines â€Å"the basis on which rest the rules of international law for the protection of the victims of armed conflicts. It was adopted in 1864 and then updated three times. Back then, it was a very critical period for European history, both military and political. Situation in Western Europe was relatively peaceful between the fall of the first Napoleon (the Battle of Waterloo in 1815) and the rise of Napoleon III (Italian campaign of 1859), but when the conflict in the Crimea took place, powers couldn’t maintain peace anymore. Henri Dunant was a man who gave the world idea of creating an international set of laws governing the treatment and care for the wounded and prisoners of war. He witnessed the Battle of Solferino in 1859, fought between Austrian and French-Piedmontese armies in Northern Italy. Around forty thousands of soldiers were wounded and left on the battlefield. The reason for that was a lack of personnel, facilities, and truces to give the soldiers any kind of medical aid. After witnessing all that Dunant decided to act. So, after his return to Geneva Dunant used his membership in the Geneva Society for Public Welfare to urge the calling together of an international conference to create new rules in terms of war. Other things that Henri Dunant did were publishing his account Un Souvenir de Solferino and helping with foundation of the International Committee of  the Red Cross in 1863. So, this new Red Cross Committee started to work, with best regards to help people, living in zones of war. Even if it was said that safeguarding the health and physical well-being of people is primarily the duty and responsibility of a nation they are related to, still understood that it wasn’t enough and in times of war people would need some â€Å"voluntary agencies to supplement†. Obviously it meant creating official agencies to help people on the battlefields in every country. Last thing that was missing was the list of rules to govern activities of the Red Cross Committee itself and any other agencies or companies which were involved. The big date was August 22, 1864. Several European states gathered in Geneva, Switzerland and signed the First Geneva Convention. List of states included: Baden (nowadays being a part of Germany), Belgium, Denmark, France, Hesse (also being a part of Germany nowadays), Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia (part of Germany now), Spain, Switzerland, and Wà ¼rttemberg (which is also a part of today’s Germany). Later, two more countries joined and signed the Convention, which were Norway and Sweden. . The Second Geneva Convention The Second Geneva Convention was adopted to protect the human rights of wounded, sick, and shipwrecked soldiers that were found at sea. This act was made because of the growing number of battle ship fleets being formed and the mass amounts of war occurring at sea. The First Geneva Convention only covered the wars on land and now it covered international battles at sea. This bill extended all rights that a wounded soldier received from the first convention to soldiers at sea and made it illegal to not take in shipwrecked crewmen. The Second Geneva Convention was an important step considering the First World War was soon to come. The Second Geneva Convention was created because of the new threat of large naval fleets. The only difference between the First and Second Geneva Conventions is that the Second calls for the protection of human rights of soldiers that are at sea. Because of the future battles at sea, this plan proved to be highly necessary in order to make sure no cruelties were occurring over the deep blue sea. This plan was effective but did not cover very many scenarios or occurrences. This addition to the First Convention was necessary and without it, there would have been thousands of more casualties during the two World Wars. So, the  Convention was adopted in 1906, right after Russo-Japanese war, and was later updated two times. The actual document contained 63 articles, covering many aspects related to treating people during the wars, both on the land and on the sea. Now let’s look at the most important provisions: * Articles 12 and 18 require all parties to protect and care for the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked. * Article 21 allows appeals to be made to neutral vessels to help collect and care for the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked. The neutral vessels cannot be captured. * Articles 36 and 37 protect religious and medical personnel serving on a combat ship. * Article 22 states that hospital ships cannot be used for any military purpose, and owing to their humanitarian mission, they cannot be attacked or captured. * Article 14 clarifies that although a warship cannot capture a hospital ship’s medical staff, it can hold the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked as prisoners of war. It was adopted by 33 countries, including China, France, Germany, Russia, and the United States. However, at the same time it was rejected by Great Britain, Japan and Korea. The Third Geneva Convention So, the third one of four conventions was mainly related to prisoners of war and their treatment. According to this Geneva Convention no prisoner of war could be forced to disclose to his captor any information other than his identity (i.e., his name and rank, but not his military unit, home town, or address of relatives). Every prisoner of war was entitled to adequate food and medical care and had the right to exchange correspondence and receive parcels. He was required to observe ordinary military discipline and courtesy, but he could attempt to escape at his own risk. Once recaptured, he was not to be punished for his attempt. Officers were to receive pay either according to the pay scale of their own country or to that of their captor, whichever was less; they could not be required to work. Enlisted men might be required to work for pay, but the nature and location of their work were not to expose them to danger, and in no case could they be required to perform work directly rela ted to military operations. Camps were to be open to inspection by authorized representatives of a neutral power (during World War II, Switzerland and Sweden acted as protecting powers). Article 4  defines who could be called prisoner of war. Article 5 specifies that prisoners of war (as defined in article 4) are protected from the time of their capture until their final repatriation. It also specifies that when there is any doubt whether a combatant belongs to the categories in article 4, they should be treated as such until their status has been determined by a competent tribunal. Article 12 states that prisoners of war are the responsibility of the state not the persons who capture them and that they may not be transferred to a state that is not party to the Convention. Articles 13 to 16 state that prisoners of war must be treated humanely without any adverse discrimination and that their medical needs must be met. The Convention was signed by 47 governments. Chief among the nations that did not adhere to the Geneva Convention of 1929 were Japan and the USSR. Japan, however, gave a qualified promise (1942) to abide by the Geneva rules, and the USSR announced (1941) that it would observe the terms of the Hague Convention of 1907, which did not provide (as does the Geneva Convention) for neutral inspection of prison camps, for the exchange of prisoners’ names, and for correspondence with prisoners. So, that could help to change the situation, including time during World War II. The United States and Great Britain mostly honored the Convention and its rules. At the same time, Germany didn’t treat all prisoners equally. While American and British prisoners got good treatment in Germany, people from Poland got probably the worst possible. The International Red Cross at Geneva tried to collect as much information about prisoners as it could, so situation was under control. The Fourth Geneva Convention The Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, also known as The Fourth Geneva Convention, was adopted in 1949. Not only it had many new points, but also points from all previous Geneva Conventions were reviewed and expanded. The actual document consists of four parts: Part I. General Provisions. It includes the basic things, like explanation who is a â€Å"protected person†: Persons protected by the Convention are those who, at a given moment and in any manner whatsoever, find themselves, in case of a conflict or occupation, in the hands of a Party to the conflict or  Occupying Power of which they are not nationals. Document also demands a lawful treatment of: noncombatants, soldiers who laid down their arms, or wounded, unable to continue the fight, combatants. Part II. General Protection of Populations Against Certain Consequences of War. Here text says about protection of civilians. Important thing is that no kind of discrimination by nationality, race, religion, or political views is appropriate. Part III. Status and Treatment of Protected Persons. This part includes many different things about actions on occupied territories, like population transfer, care and education of children, destruction of property, medical services, etc. It also includes topic of collective punishment: Article 33. No protected person may be punished for an offense he or she has not personally committed. Collective penalties and likewise all measures of intimidation or of terrorism are prohibited. Pillage is prohibited. Reprisals against protected persons and their property are prohibited. Part IV. Execution of the Convention. This part is almost the same in documents of all four conventions and it says that this part contains â€Å"the formal or diplomatic provisions which it is customary to place at the end of an international Convention to settle the procedure for bringing it into effect are grouped together under this heading†. This time the amount of countries signed was even bigger than before, consisting of 194 countries. However, 16 countries didn’t sign it; those were Aruba, Bouvet Island, Faroe Islands, Guernsey, Heard and Mc Donald Islands, Isle of Man, Jersey, Mayotte, Norfolk Island, Northern Mariana Islands, National Authority, Reunion Island, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, and Tibet. Even if the Convention included almost everything that was needed, later it was updated with 3 protocols added as amendments: Protocol I (1977) relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts Protocol II (1977) relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts Protocol III (2005) relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem. Protocol I So, in 1977 Geneva Convention was updated with two additional protocols added as amendments. It was necessary because since 1949 worldwide weaponry and conditions have changed. Logically, it’s related to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts. By the moment Protocol I was  ratified by governments of 170 countries. The actual document consists of 102 articles. Mostly it just rephrases statements from original Geneva Conventions, but it also includes many new interesting things: Articles 51 and 54 outlaw indiscriminate attacks on civilian populations, and destruction of food, water, and other materials needed for survival. Indiscriminate attacks include directly attacking civilian (non-military) targets, but also using technology such as biological weapons, nuclear weapons and land mines, whose scope of destruction cannot be limited. A total war that does not distinguish between civilian and military targets is considered a war crime. Articles 56 and 53 outlaw attacks on dams, dikes, nuclear generating stations, and places of worship. The first three are â€Å"works and installations containing dangerous forces† and may be attacked but only in ways that do not threaten to release the dangerous forces (i.e., it is permissible to attempt to capture them but not to try to destroy them). Articles 76 and 77, 15 and 79 provide special protections for women, children, and civilian medical personnel, and provide measures of protection for journalists. Article 77 forbids conscription of children under age 15 into the armed forces. It does allow, however, for persons under the age of 15 to participate voluntarily. Articles 43 and 44 clarify the military status of members of guerrilla forces. Combatant and prisoner of war status is granted to members of dissident forces when under the command of a central authority. Such combatants cannot conceal their allegiance; they must be recognizable as combatants while preparing for or during an attack. Article 35 bans weapons that â€Å"cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering,† as well as means of warfare that â€Å"cause widespread, long-term, and severe damage to the natural environment.† Article 85 states that it is a war crime to use one of the protective emblems recognized by the Geneva Conventions to deceive the opposing forces (perfidy). Articles 17 and 81 authorize the ICRC, national societies, or other impartial humanitarian organizations to provide assistance to the victims of war. Protocol II While Protocol I was related to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts, Protocol II, also added in 1977, was related to the  protection of non-international armed conflicts. After all those Conventions many rules existed, related to international warfare, but somehow, before the Protocol II was added, nobody thought much about internal conflicts even though many countries had them. So, even since the last Geneva Convention, some delegates wanted to make laws and set a new bar for minimal humanitarian standards in cases when the situation had all the properties and characteristics of war whilst not being an international conflict. Even before the addition of Protocol II Geneva Conventions of 1949 had Article 3 related to non-international conflicts taking place in bounds of a single country. However, it wasn’t enough. Article 3 had only few basic things to protect victims of non-international conflicts, like: * Persons taking no active part in hostilities should be treated humanely (including military persons who have ceased to be active as a result of sickness, injury, or detention). * The wounded and sick shall be collected and cared for. Since Article 3 was too brief and didn’t cover many important aspects, many diplomats wanted to clarify it all in a new Protocol and to extend the scope of international law to cover additional humanitarian rights in the context of internal conflicts. However, the debate around this new protocol had two totally different ideas: 1) First said that for victim of a conflict there is no difference if that conflict is international or not, so all the distinction for those people can only be artificial. 2) And another one said that in case of internal conflict international laws should not apply, meaning that country had all rights to do whatever it wants inside its boundaries. As for now, Protocol 3 had been ratified by governments of 165 countries. Even though The United States was among few countries who just signed the protocol with the intention of ratifying it, the International Committee of the Red Cross made an appeal in 1997, saying that a number of the articles contained in both protocols are recognized as rules of customary international law valid for all states, whether or not they have ratified them. Protocol III The third and the last additional protocol of Geneva Conventions was added in 2005. It was devoted to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem. It was really needed in cases of war for soldiers to know who they should not attack. Actually, the emblem itself was established much earlier, during the first Geneva Convention of 1864. It was really needed, because weapons at those times already were quite deadly, and often medics and people of other supporting professions were shot right on the battlefield while trying to help wounded soldiers. So a part of the first Geneva Convention was just right about creating a distinctive emblem for people of those professions. However, it wasn’t easy. The first symbol was just a red cross on the white background, but it looked very similar to the Christian Cross. That was the reason why Muslim nations totally rejected it. But in 1876 the Ottoman Empire introduced another symbol – the Red Crescent, as more neutral and less Christian emblem. After that additional emblems were proposed by the Red Cross Society of Eritrea, such as sun of Persia or the red lion. At the same time Magen David Adom of Israel proposed the Red Shield of David as another alternative emblem. After all, the world needed the new symbol for medics to be: * Neutral and free of religious, cultural or political connotations. Otherwise it would conflict with the whole idea of giving the medical personnel neutral humanitarian status in armed conflicts. * Officially acclaimed. Even if the Red Shield of David was used in some places after Magen David Adom’s efforts, it wasn’t officially acclaimed by the National Societies. And without membership in one of those people were not eligible for certain protections under the Geneva Conventions. Fortunately a comprehensive solution was found at last with the adoption of Protocol III in 2005. For Magen David Adom there was a nice alternative – the Red Crystal, so they should’ve just displayed it in the context of international conflict to have all protection needed. All three emblems are appointed the same legal status, which means they are totally equal. Emblems can have a protective use, as well as an indicative use. Medical and religious personnel may mark themselves, their vehicles, ships and buildings as a sign of their humanitarian mission and protected status under the Geneva Conventions. Members of armed forces can also use it to show that  they are protected by Geneva Conventions. However, the misuse of the emblem may be considered as a war crime. Conclusion Thanks to all these conventions and their protocols, world is safer and more civilized nowadays, even I the times of war. People feel themselves protected, which means better future for all of us! Bibliography Books: Bernett, Angela. The Geneva Convention: The Hidden Origins of the Red Cross. The History Press, Stroud, 2006. Borch, Fred L., and Solis, Gary. Geneva Conventions. Kaplan Publishing, New York City, 2010. Grossman, Dave. On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society. Back Bay Books, New York City, 2009. Byers, Michael. War Law: Understanding International Law and Armed Conflict. Grove Press, New York City, 2007. Web Sites: http://supportgenevaconventions.org/. â€Å"Citizens Interfaith Coalition to Reaffirm and Extend the Geneva Conventions†. Dennis Rivers. 11/11/2011. http://en.wikipedia.org/. â€Å"Geneva Conventions†. Multiple authors. 11/23/2011. http://www.icrc.org/. â€Å"The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols†. International Committee of the Red Cross. 11/12/2011.

Biography †Aryabhata, the Indian mathematician Essay

Aryabhata (476 CE – 550 CE) was the first Hindu mathematician and astronomers from India. He wrote couple of treatise about mathematics and astronomy. Some of them were lost. His most famous works Aryabhatiya completed in 499 CE and the Arya-Siddhanta. Aryabhatiya consists of 108 verses, in which Aryabhata wrote about the mathematics and astronomy at the age of 23 in 499 CE. He was born in India at Asmaka or Kusumapura in 476 CE. There is no clear evidence of the place of birth (Indian Streams Research General, September 2012). Aryabhata studied in Kusumapura and stayed there for some time. The evidences from Hindu, Buddhist tradition, and Bhaskara I (629 CE) recognize Kusumapura as Pataliputra, currently known as Patna. Aryabhata was the head of an institution at Kusumapura. The University of Nalanda was in Pataliputra at the time. This university had an astronomical observatory that forces the belief that Aryabhata was the head of the Nalanda University. Aryabhata set up an observatory at the Sun temple in Taregana, Bihar (Aryabhata – Indian Mathematician). Aryabhatiya deals with mathematics and astronomy. That consists of an introduction containing astronomical tables and Aryabhata’s system of phonemic number notation. This work consists of three sections: Ganita (means mathematics), Kala-kriya (means Time calculations), and Gola (means Sphere). Ganita covers decimal number system, algorithms for square and cubic roots, geometric measurements, the algorithm for Pi, tables of sines using Pythagorean Theorem, quadratic equations, proportions, and the solution of linear equations. This discusses the Aryabhata’s method to solve the mathematical problem, Kuttaka (means pulverizer) also known as Aryabhata’s algorithm. This algorithm suggests breaking a problem in smaller fractions. Kala-kriya speaks about astronomy. It is about treating planetary motion and include the definition of various units for time, eccentric, epicyclic planetary motion modes, longitude, and latitude. Gola discusses the plane trigonometry to spherical geometry. It also has prediction of solar and lunar eclipses and explicit statement about westward motion of stars because of the  spherical rotation of the Earth about its axis (Indian Streams Research General, September 2012). The Arya-siddhanta was the work on astronomical computations. Surya Siddhanta was the base of this work and considered the start of the day at the midnight, as opposed to sunrise according to Aryabhatiya. It also contained a description of several astronomical instruments: the gnomon (shanku-yantra), a shadow instrument (chhAyA-yantra), possibly angle-measuring devices, semicircular, and circular (dhanur-yantra/chakra-yantra), a cylindrical stick yasti-yantra, an umbrella-shaped device called the chhatra-yantra, and water clocks of at least two types, bow-shaped and cylindrical. Bakhshali Manuscript discussed the place-value system first in the 3rd century. Georges Ifrah, the mathematician from France, acknowledged that awareness of zero by Aryabhata in place-value system because of a place holder for the powers of 10 with null coefficients. Instead of using Brahmi numerals Aryabhata continued the tradition from Vedic times by using letters of the alphabet for denoting numbers, expressing quantities, such as the table of sines in a mnemonic form (Indian Streams Research General, September 2012). The Surya Siddhanta laid foundational rules to determine the true motions of the luminaries and introduced the sine, cosine trigonometric functions. Aryabhata devised the formulae for calculating the area of triangle and circle. He also devised the same for pyramid and sphere. Formulae for triangle and circle were correct. Most historians claimed that formulae for sphere and pyramid were incorrect. He created a table of sines and versine with formula sin (n+1) x – sin nx = sin (n-1) x – (1/225) sin nx versin= 1 – cosine Aryabhata’s definition of jya (sine), kojya (cosine), urkrama-jya (versine), and otkram-jya (inverse sine) influence the trigonometry (Indian Streams Research General, September 2012). Aryabhata concluded that the approximation for pi ([pic]) is irrational. In Ganitapada he gave the formula for the ratio of circumference to the diameter as ((4 + 100) Ãâ€" 8 + 62000)/20000 = 62832/20000 = 3.1416, which is accurate to five significant figures (Aryabhata – Indian Mathematician). The speculation was that Aryabhata used ‘Ä sanna’ (means approaching), to mean that not only is this approximation but also that the value is irrational. This shows quite a sophisticated insight from him because Lambert proved the irrationality of pi in Europe only in 1761. Bhaskara’s commentary on Aryabhatiya discusses the topic known as Diophantine equations, e.g., integer solutions to the equations that have the form ax+by = c. That formula to find value of N stated as N = 8x+5 = 9y+4 = 7z+1. It turns out that the smallest value for N is 85. Vedic text Sulba Sutras discussed these notoriously difficult diophantine equations. Aryabhata provided rules of algebra in the Aryabhatia and those are as follows: and  13 + 23 +†¦+n3= (1+2+†¦+n) 2 In some texts, Aryabhata seems to ascribe the apparent motions of the heavens to the Earth’s rotation. He believed that the planet’s orbits as elliptical rather than circular. Aryabhata correctly insisted that the earth rotates about its axis daily and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the earth, contrary to the then-prevailing view in other parts of the world that the sky rotated. The first chapter of the Aryabhatiya indicated this, where he gives the number of rotations of the earth in a yuga, and made more explicit in his gola chapter (A He used analogy of movement of boat going forward. During this movement person feels an unmoving object going in opposite direction than the boat. With this analogy he discussed the appearance of unmoving stars going uniformly westward. The cause of rising and setting is that the sphere of the stars together with the planets apparently turns due west at the equator, constantly push ed by the cosmic wind. Aryabhata described a geocentric model of the solar system, in which he mentioned that the Sun and Moon in turn revolve around the Earth. He calculated the positions and periods of the planets with respect to uniformly moving points. He stated that speed at which Mercury, Venus, and Sun move around the Earth is identical and is different from the specific speed of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. He represented each planet’s motion through the zodiac. Most historians of astronomy expressed that this two-epicycle model reflects elements of pre-Ptolemaic Greek astronomy. Historians saw another element in Aryabhata’s model, the Å›Ä «ghrocca, the basic planetary period in relation to the Sun as a sign of an underlying heliocentric model. He explained  solar and lunar eclipses. He stated that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight and explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth. His theory explained the lunar eclipse occurs when the moon ent ers into the Earth’s shadow and discussed the length the size and extent of the Earth’s shadow. He provided the computation and the size of the eclipsed part during an eclipse. Later Indian astronomers improved on the calculations, but Aryabhata’s methods provided the core. Aryabhata calculated the sidereal rotation as 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds; the modern value is 23:56:4.091. Similarly, his value for the length of the sidereal year at 365 days, six hours, 12 minutes, and 30 seconds is an error of three minutes and 20 seconds over the length of a year (Indian Streams Research General, September 2012). Aryabhata’s work influenced the Indian astronomical tradition and several neighboring cultures through translations. His work as translated in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age (c. 820 CE). Al-Khwarizmi cited some of his results and in the 10th century Al-Biruni stated that Aryabhata’s followers believed that the Earth rotated on its axis. Aryabhata’s astronomical calculation methods were also very influential. Islamic world widely used the trigonometric tables to compute many Arabic astronomical tables (zijes). Calendric calculations devised by Aryabhata and his followers contributed the practical purposes of fixing the Panchangam (the Hindu calendar). Other cultures used this for forming the calendar systems. India honored Aryabhata by naming India’s first satellite as Aryabhata. An Institute for conducting research in astronomy, astrophysics, and atmospheric sciences is the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIOS) near Nainital, India. Indian authorities named the inter-school math competition as ‘Aryabhata Maths Competition’, as is Bacillus Aryabhata, a species of bacteria discovered by ISRO scientists in 2009. References Indian Streams Research General: Avhale, P. S; Waghmare, R. V.; Kolhe, S. B. Indian Streams Research Journal. Sep2012, Vol. 2 Issue 8, Special section p1-5. 5p. Retrieved from https://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/detail?vid=2&hid=117&sid=d84c9078-6d85-4131-9209-e44cdb4cba58%40sessionmgr110&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#db=a9h&AN=82351338

Essay on 1What Is Literature

Essay on 1What Is Literature Essay on 1What Is Literature FIRST YEAR NOVEL COURSE LECTURE 1 Definition of literature and characteristics of a literary work WHAT IS LITERATURE? ï‚ž Literature can be generally defined as any written work that is produced for an artistic purpose, rather than merely to communicate information . A literary work, therefore, often has certain characteristics that distinguish it from other forms of writing. These characteristics will be outlined in the following slides. 1. LITERATURE IS FICTIONAL ï‚ž Most works of literature are fictional: they tell about imaginary or unreal people, places and events. In fantasy fiction, for example, human beings fly, perform magic remain young, travel through time, and live happily ever after. ï‚ž Even historical literature, which is based on actual events, is fictional. It includes characters, 2. LITERATURE IS AESTHETIC ï‚ž Literature is aesthetic as it gives a sense of pleasure to the reader. ï‚ž This pleasure rests in the way authors use literary conventions, such as metaphor, symbolism, irony , suspense, and poetic language to enhance and communicate ideas. 3. THE LANGUAGE OF LITERATURE ï‚ž The medium of literature, whether oral or written, is language. ï‚ž Authors of literature use language in special ways. One of those ways is an emphasis on connotative rather than denotative meanings of words. ï‚ž For example, scientists use THE LANGUAGE OF LITERATURE-CONTINUED ï‚ž In contrast, writers of literature use language connotatively: they emphasize the emotional

Measuring tools Essays

Measuring tools Essays Measuring tools Essay Measuring tools Essay Either the aim or objective and the type of quantitative approach was clearly stated within the abstract or summary of all the papers. Identification of the purpose and type of research at the beginning of the paper has several immediate advantages and limitations. From a nursing perspective, it is possible to determine if the research is relevant to patients in a particular care setting. However, as McCaughan (1999) points out, subtle differences may only be apparent with further exploration of the study. Secondly, clarity of purpose suggests a well-planned study that will deliver valid and useful data. Thompson (1999) concurs with this view and suggests that without a clear statement of aims the reader is unable to determine whether the research achieves its objectives or not. Furthermore, with unclear aims, there could be a tendency towards data-trawling, which may result in providing spurious results. Although I agree with the views of Thompson (1999) and McCaughan (1999), I believe there can be concerns with stating the type of method used in conducting the research. For instance, there could be a tendency to accept the design at face value or for it to bias the critical analysis of the study. Lais (1998), study is described as a prospective, nonrandomised study. According to Woods and Catanzario (1988), a prospective design aims to observe a sample on at least two occasions over a period of time, the aim being to reduce the likelihood of bias in reporting the relationship between the cause and effect. Whereas Lais (1998) study consisted of gathering information for a period of one month and could therefore be called prospective, it is not clear whether all the criteria for a true prospective design were applied or not. However, this is not to say that the research findings themselves would not be valid and reliable. Rather that even though there is a clear statement of the type of research, care must be taken that it does not influence personal judgement or the analysis of the study. Having determined that initially, the information given in the abstract of a study can have advantages and limitations, the next point will briefly consider the value of including or excluding a literature review within the study. LITERATURE REVIEW None of the studies reviewed in this assignment contained a literature review. However, there is some evidence that previous studies had been used to inform the investigations. Homer (1998) refers to previous studies within the methodology section and again in the discussion. The studies referred to are included in the reference list. Although the material in the reference list is relevant to the topic it only contains references for seven previous studies. Similarly, Lai (1998) cites previous studies within the discussion. Again the reference list only contains a few references. On the other hand, Curran et als (2000) study incorporates references to numerous previous work throughout the text. The value of including a literature review in a quantitative study is that it enables the research problem to be put into context or to identify gaps and weaknesses in prior studies so as to justify the current investigation. Also as Carnwell and Daly (2001) discuss it is valuable in demonstrating insight into the current state of knowledge within the relevant field. However, the exclusion of a literature review does not necessarily mean that the researchers did not undertake one. On the other hand, exclusion makes it difficult to determine the reason for undertaking the studies. For example, although, it appears that Lais (1998) study may have been carried out, at least in part, to support a cost saving initiative within his medical centre, none of the referenced material concerns this issue.  However, there is a common understanding throughout the studies regarding the nature of the topic being investigated. In particular, all of the papers acknowledge that peripheral venous cannulae are associated with the development of phlebitis. THEORETICAL/CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Although none of papers (Curran et al 2000, Homer 1998, Lai 1998) identify a theoretical or conceptual framework that guided the research, there is allusion to the principles of some of the theories. For example, Curran (2000) discusses two causes of phlebitis, insertion site infection and physiochemical reactions. Similarly, Lai (1998) refers to infusion-related phlebitis and sepsis. On the other hand, Homer does not appear to refer to any theoretical framework in his study. In conclusion, it does not seem that theoretical models had a major influence on the studies. DEFINITIONS OF PHLEBITIS The studies have all identified phlebitis by using clinical indicators and severity rating scales. However, there does not appear to be common indicators or scales to identify the severity of phlebitis. For example, Lai (1998) has defined phlebitis as a palpable cord or at least two of the following, tenderness, warmth, erythema and induration. There is no particular reference as to the origin of the definition, although it appears to have been adapted from the inflammation scale used by the IV team within the hospital where the study took place. Similarly, the origin of the inflammation scale is not reported. According to Lais (1998) definition, phlebitis would be given a score of 3 or 4. Homer (1998) also defines phlebitis by clinical categorisation and allocating scores. However, the categories and scoring are different to those used by Lai (1998). Using Homers (1998) definition would give phlebitis a score between 2 and 4. Homers (1998) scale is not referenced but a significant difference from the one used by Lai (1998) is the exclusion of induration as a clinical indicator. Curran et al (2000) referred to the existing literature for indications of phlebitis. The eventual approach adopted contained two categories, erythema equal to or extending more than 3cm from the insertion site and/or purulent discharge with either or both being given a rating of 2 if present. Curran (2000) reports that this scale had been used in previous studies and includes references within the text, but does not offer any further information. However, there is no discussion as to any previous validation process that may have been used. As we have seen, phlebitis has been categorised and classified in different ways by different authors unique to their own study. Previous studies may have guided some of the categorisation. For example, Homer (1998) refers to the classification of phlebitis by Maki and Ringer (1991 cited in Homer 1998 p5) and Tager(1983 cited in Homer 1998 p5) but develops his own scale for classifying phlebitis. As a result, there appears to be no consensus of opinion regarding the rating and definition of phlebitis between the studies under review.  As well as impacting on the accuracy of assessing and identifying severity of phlebitis, the lack of a common assessment tool for defining and measuring phlebitis may impact on the generalisability of the research. Campbell (1998) suggests that the use of a uniform scale that measures the degree of phlebitis is also beneficial in providing criteria for standardising documentation. ACCURACY, VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE ASSESSMENT TOOL Each of the studies used clinical indicators and a rating scale to determine and measure the severity of phlebitis. The strength and appropriateness of this type of measuring tool has been demonstrated in other quantitative studies within the same field. (Dinley 1976, Maddox and Rush 1977, Baxter Healthcare Ltd. 1988 cited in Campbell 1998 p 1311) However, there are limitations and weaknesses with the tools used in the studies under review. None of the researchers have discussed how validity and reliability was assessed. Although both Lai (1998) and Homer (1998) have used tools that do not appear to have been used in previous situations, there is no report on a pilot study being carried out prior to the main study. Lais (1998) measurement tool has a number of limitations. Within the study Lai (1998) reports that the intravenous site was monitored according to a well-defined inflammation scale and has published the indicators and rating for the inflammation scale in the study. However, the tool that Lai used to obtain the data on phlebitis in his study was not the reported inflammation scale. Lai (1998) appears to have used elements of the inflammation scale and designed a scale that has some differences from the inflammation scale that he reported was used. The inflammation scale uses pain and swelling as clinical indicators but in the scale that was used in the study swelling has been excluded and pain has reduced to tenderness. Another point of concern is the implication that the severity of phlebitis could be measured on a scale designed to measure the presence and severity of inflammation. This may lead to confusion between rating phlebitis and inflammation. In other words, it is not certain that the tool actually used measured what it was supposed to measure. Homer (1998) referred to other studies before adopting a different set of clinical indicators in his scale that he reports as being more rigorous than Maki and Ringers (1991 cited in Homer 1998 p5) scale but less so than Tagers (1983 cited in Homer 1998 p5). However, there does not appear to be any reference to testing validity of the scale. A point of accuracy concerns the use of the scale for measuring infiltration as well as phlebitis. Although, the measuring of infiltration is not mentioned in the discussion section, the methods section gives the grading of infiltration as 1-3. The grading on the scale for phlebitis is 2-4. According to Homer (1998), the majority of the incidences of phlebitis were graded at 2. Consequently, phlebitis and infiltration were both graded as 2 using the same clinical indicators. Again, this raises the point of whether the scale measured what it was supposed to measure. The strength of Curran et als (2000) measurement tool lies in the fact that it had been used in other studies. However, there is no discussion as to the validity or reliability of the tool. It is also unclear as to whether Curran et al (2000) carried out a pilot study or not. There is a reference in the paper to collecting data on forty catheters, which is not the total number of the whole data collection. However, although analysis was carried out on the data collected from this, there is no further discussion. In summary, there appears to be serious weakness and limitations with the accuracy of the measuring tools. Validity and reliability appear not to have been tested. As McCaughan (1999) points out, if measuring tools are not valid then neither are study findings. Error due to the measuring technique used, the instrument itself or the person doing the measuring may affect reliability. Therefore, the next point will consider the issue of interrater reliability.

Pros and Cons of the Corn-Based Plastic PLA

Pros and Cons of the Corn-Based Plastic PLA Polylactic acid (PLA), a plastic substitute made from fermented plant starch (usually corn) is quickly becoming a popular alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics. As more and more countries and states follow the lead of China, Ireland, South Africa, Uganda and San Francisco in banning plastic grocery bags responsible for so much so-called â€Å"white pollution† around the world, PLA is poised to play a big role as a viable, biodegradable replacement. Proponents also tout the use of PLA, which is technically â€Å"carbon neutral† in that it comes from renewable, carbon-absorbing plants, as yet another way to reduce our emissions of greenhouse gases in a quickly warming world. PLA also will not emit toxic fumes when incinerated. However, there are still issues with the use of polylactic acid such as its slow rate of biodegradability, its inability to mix with other plastics in recycling, and its high use of genetically modified corn (though arguably the latter could be one of the good effects of PLA as it provides a good reason to alter crop yields with genetic splicing). The Cons of PLA: Biodegradation Rate and Recycling Critics say that PLA is far from a panacea for dealing with the world’s plastic waste problem. For one thing, although PLA does biodegrade, it does so very slowly. According to Elizabeth Royte, writing in Smithsonian, PLA may well break down into its constituent parts (carbon dioxide and water) within three months in a â€Å"controlled composting environment,† that is, an industrial composting facility heated to 140 F and fed a steady diet of digestive microbes. It will take far longer in a compost bin, or in a landfill packed so tightly that no light and little oxygen are available to assist in the process. Indeed, analysts estimate that a PLA bottle could take anywhere from 100 to 1,000 years to decompose in a landfill. Another issue with PLA is that it must be kept separate when recycled, lest it contaminates the recycling stream; since PLA is plant-based, it needs to be disposed of in composting facilities, which points to another problem: There are currently a few hundred industrial-grade composting facilities across the United States. Finally, PLA is typically made of genetically modified corn, at least in the United States. The largest producer of PLA in the world is NatureWorks, a subsidiary of Cargill, which is the world’s largest provider of genetically modified corn seed. This is tricky because the future costs of genetic modification (and the associated pesticides) to the environment and human health are still largely unknown. Pros of PLA Over Plastics: Utility and Biodegradability Genetically modified foods may be a controversial issue, but when it comes to genetically spicing plants together to breed corn that yields more crops for industrial use has its major advantages. With the increasing demand for corn to make ethanol fuel, let alone PLA, it’s no wonder that Cargill and others have been tampering with genes to produce higher yields. At least harmful plastic isnt be used as frequently anymore! Many industries are using PLA because they are capable of biodegrading at a much faster rate than plastic while still offering the same level of sanitation and utility. Everything from plastic clamshells for food take-out to medical products can now be made from PLA, which drastically reduces the carbon footprint of these industries. While PLA has promise as an alternative to conventional plastic once the means of disposal are worked out, consumers might be better served by simply switching to reusable containers, from cloth bags, baskets, and backpacks for grocery shopping to safe, reusable (non-plastic) bottles for beverages.

Fifth Section Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Fifth Section - Essay Example One-year strategic objectives are to identify a market which most effectively exploited its capabilities, the market for cordless segments, and develop this market. The brand in turn should acquire a distinctive identity. That combination, a system of production which gives the company a particular advantage in its chosen market segment, a world-wide reputation for product quality, and a brand which immediately identifies the aims and aspirations of its customers, will make Able Corporation one of the most profitable manufacturers. Five-year strategic objectives are: (1) to develop innovative products and solution which meet needs of target audience and allow Able Corporation to sustain strong market position; (2) to penetrate new market segments of PEPT; (3) to become a leader in cordless market segment. A ten-year strategic objective include: (1) to transform itself from a medium-ranking company with uncertain future to Europe's leading PEPT producer; (2) to build two plants in Eas tern Asia and (3) to penetrate Asian market; (3) increase market share in 50 % (McDonald, Christopher 2003). Business strategy looks at the relationship between the firm and its competitors, suppliers, and customers in the markets which it has chosen.

Journal Assignment on Protest Art Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Journal on Protest Art - Assignment Example On the other hand, Crile so aligns the theme of her work to the unraveled scandal of brutish human rights violation in Abu Ghraib prison. Hers has assured having captured the actual scenes of grave physical, psychological, and sexual violence as in ‘Arranged: Naked Mound of Flesh’, ‘Crouching in Terror’, and ‘Obscene Intimacy’ in which each naked slim subject possesses both literal and abstract paleness under a smudged white complexion to stress an amount of innocence with shame, frailty, and defenselessness of character as opposed to a darker background of doom with men in full uniform, conspicuously in far greater authority. (2) In his abstract proposition, Alsoudani reveals how a mind would feel towards a concrete encounter of war in its most destructive form. Working the similar pieces with charcoal and pastel to enhance representation of severe disorder, the audience may be drawn to magnify that distorted images are symbolic of a heightened moment of disaster. Smoke and ashes clouding the transitory human figures impact an approach to perceive the concept of destruction that eventually leads to fading whereby the living elements, as in the soldiers, lose their distinguishable features which should have been so vivid prior to the state of chaos.

Introdiction to airline and airport management Essay

Introdiction to airline and airport management - Essay Example It is important to evaluate whether these factors are positively affecting the commercial air transport or not. The expectations of air passengers have increased in terms of quality of air transport services. Since passengers groups can be segmented into various categories based on different variables therefore, their needs may vary. The immense variability among the needs of the passengers has always been a major concern for the airlines. The ultimate need of all passengers is their satisfaction. Apart from the service quality improvements made by all airlines, the airports have widely adopting the quality criteria. Since the airports are also operating in a more competitive environment therefore, airport management is improving to serve passengers in a better manner. In the previous years, the customers used to buy tickets directly from the airlines and no contractual relationship used to exist between the customers and the airport. Today, the situation is very different because even without having any contractual relationship with the airports, the passengers expect to have excellent airport services. For fulfilling the needs of the passengers, the airport nowadays are giving great focus towards ground handling, security checks, airport access and border controls etc. The European airports have developed â€Å"Airport Voluntary Commitment on Air Passenger Service.† It has been developed after the extensive consultation of airport management with Consumers, European Commission and European Government. According to the voluntary commitment, European airports accept the responsibility to provide defined quality of services to the travellers without any legal binding on a consistent basis. For example, according to Airport Voluntary Commitment, â€Å"Each airport will prominently publicise the services it offers for assisting passengers with reduced mobility (PRMs).† 2 The

Current issues in financial reporting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Current issues in financial reporting - Essay Example 549-586). This paper explains the importance of financial reporting in organization, and gives the reasons for and against capitalising human resources in the financial statements of a company. Discussion Financial reporting entails communication of useful financial information for making credit, investment and other decisions in business. Reports to the stockholders on quarterly and annual basis, financial statement notes, prospectuses on issuance of security and common stock, and the external financial statements, like the income statements, stockholder’s equity statement, cash flow statements and the statements on stock equity. Financial reporting enhances delivery of information to the shareowners and lenders in business; it is usually component of the essential contract between them since they have the right to know the spending of their money and the returning profits (Ballweiser, 2004). In UK, big changes in financial reporting are under the Financial Services sector. T he Accounting Standards Board, ASB issued exposure drafts that detail the proposals for financial reporting in UK. ... The demand for more transparency ensures growth to the interests of an organization in order to meet such demand constructively. The organization will, therefore, have a strategic value in clarifying for the critical performance as well as internal management of the organization communication. This leads to effective allocation of capital in the organization, and critical in achieving a special attention within the accounting research. Reason for Capitalizing Human Resource in UK Human capital forms the main asset in service companies. The success of an organization can be rated depending on the  employees and customers they retain (Francis, Lafond, Olsson, & Schipper 2005, p. 295-327). Several studies on human resource measurement aim at providing the management of any organization with the traditional financial statements, as well as additional information. The intangible asset from many organizations is more critical than the tangible assets. Intangible assets comprise of the su ccess factors needed for maximization of profits and continual survival of the organization. Like human resource, while the intangible assets comprise of the fixed assets like property. The financial information from the financial statements is considered incomplete when they fail to cover and account the human resources. Financial measuring and reporting by businesses in UK enhance the management and evaluation of people’s performance. This ensures greater transparency on value creation through effective policies and practices that benefit stakeholders and the organization at large. The management of people by an organization impacts their performance. The feature of good managerial practices

The Big Stick by Roosevelt Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Big Stick by Roosevelt - Article Example He believed in a poise of power between the world’s powerful nations as he saw peace as a recipe for stronger fiscal growth and stability. In the Monroe doctrine, he emphasized the American control of the western parts of the globe. Through this doctrine, he placed measures that would curb prying on the US by the European entities (Morgan, 2004). President Taft assumed the reins of influence in 1909. Having been a â€Å"secretary of war†, he was experienced in dealing with global power brokers like Japan (Morgan, 2004). However, once he assumed authority, he broke away from the Roosevelt’s foreign policy of using military might to foster economic development. He focused on investments placed in distant entities. He encouraged Americans to invest in foreign countries where America had interest, notably the Far East. He believed that large foreign presence in the oversea countries would help forge appropriate coexistence among related entities. This led the massive foreign investments abroad and thus the name the â€Å"big dollar policy† (Morgan, 2004). His continued economic investment in China found paths into Japanese areas of interest. This annoyed the Japanese and led to the treaty with Russia to stop the provision of US goods from their markets. The single term that Taft served was short and characte rized by massive economic progress (Morgan, 2004). However, Taft lacked the balance of influence and sturdy headship drawn by Roosevelt on the international front. His strict nature created enemies both within the congress and within the republican groupings. Significant proportions of republicans perceived Taft as a timid individual. Such a notion together with constant infighting caused him the presidency in 1912 (Morgan, 2004).

Current issues in financial reporting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Current issues in financial reporting - Essay Example 549-586). This paper explains the importance of financial reporting in organization, and gives the reasons for and against capitalising human resources in the financial statements of a company. Discussion Financial reporting entails communication of useful financial information for making credit, investment and other decisions in business. Reports to the stockholders on quarterly and annual basis, financial statement notes, prospectuses on issuance of security and common stock, and the external financial statements, like the income statements, stockholder’s equity statement, cash flow statements and the statements on stock equity. Financial reporting enhances delivery of information to the shareowners and lenders in business; it is usually component of the essential contract between them since they have the right to know the spending of their money and the returning profits (Ballweiser, 2004). In UK, big changes in financial reporting are under the Financial Services sector. T he Accounting Standards Board, ASB issued exposure drafts that detail the proposals for financial reporting in UK. ... The demand for more transparency ensures growth to the interests of an organization in order to meet such demand constructively. The organization will, therefore, have a strategic value in clarifying for the critical performance as well as internal management of the organization communication. This leads to effective allocation of capital in the organization, and critical in achieving a special attention within the accounting research. Reason for Capitalizing Human Resource in UK Human capital forms the main asset in service companies. The success of an organization can be rated depending on the  employees and customers they retain (Francis, Lafond, Olsson, & Schipper 2005, p. 295-327). Several studies on human resource measurement aim at providing the management of any organization with the traditional financial statements, as well as additional information. The intangible asset from many organizations is more critical than the tangible assets. Intangible assets comprise of the su ccess factors needed for maximization of profits and continual survival of the organization. Like human resource, while the intangible assets comprise of the fixed assets like property. The financial information from the financial statements is considered incomplete when they fail to cover and account the human resources. Financial measuring and reporting by businesses in UK enhance the management and evaluation of people’s performance. This ensures greater transparency on value creation through effective policies and practices that benefit stakeholders and the organization at large. The management of people by an organization impacts their performance. The feature of good managerial practices

Fundamentals of Hypothesis Designing and Testing Essay

Fundamentals of Hypothesis Designing and Testing - Essay Example Definition: A statistical hypothesis is an assertion regarding the distribution of a variable or variables. If a statistical hypothesis completely specifies the distribution, it is referred to as a simple hypothesis; if not, it is referred to as a composite hypothesis (Goodman, 1999). The testing of a statistical hypothesis is the application of an explicit set of rules for deciding whether to accept the hypothesis or to reject it (Hinkelmann & Kempthorne, 2008). The method of conducting any statistical hypothesis testing can be outlined in six steps: The alternative hypothesis, which we denote by H1, expresses the idea of some difference. Alternative hypotheses may be one or two sided (Kaye & Freedman, 2011). Usually, the setting of the problem determines the alternative even before the data has been collected. †¢ Type II error: Reject H1 whilst factual; the chance of making a type II error is symbolized by {3. The objective in all hypothesis testing is to set the Type I error level, also known as the significance level, at a low enough value, and then to use a test statistic which minimizes the Type II error level for a given sample size. As we fix the Type I error level, it is best to devise the test in a way that the Type I error is most serious, in terms of cost (Lehmann & Romano, 2005). A critical P -value is the probability that is set by the person doing the test; it is the threshold for the P-value that the tester will use to decide whether the sample is unusual enough, compared to the hypothesized population, to indicate that the null hypothesis should be turned down in favor of the other option (McCloskey & Stephen, 2008). The calculated test statistic is compared to the sampling distribution that the statistic would have if the null hypothesis was factual. The comparison is summarized into a probability called a P-value: this is the probability, if the null hypothesis is factual, that the statistic would be at

Major Depression Disorder Essay Example for Free

Major Depression Disorder Essay The scenario I have chosen to write about is the case of Sylvia. She is a patient of major depression disorder. Symptoms clearly show she is struggling with major depression disorder. The five dominant theories of psychology to further understand the case of Sylvia are the cognitive theory, behavioral theory, humanistic theory, personality theory and social dominance theory. Cognitive theory of psychology is focus on internal state such as problem solving, motivation, thinking, decision making and attention. It is a key component underlying the way people think and behave. Cognitive theory is basically concerned with the development of a person’s thoughts processes. It also counts for how these thought processes influence and how a person understand and interact with the world. The technique recommend by the cognitive theory to help Sylvia. In cognitive behavioral therapy is a psychotherapeutic approach which addresses dysfunctional and emotions maladaptive behaviors and cognitive processes. CBT is an effective treatment for various conditions like anxiety, mood, personality, eating, and substances abuse which Sylvia is and has struggled with all this. So this will be very helpful for her. Behavioral theory of learning which is based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Behavioral techniques are widely used in therapeutic settings to help clients in learning new skills and behavior. It is bases on the belief that behavior can be measured, changed and trained. The technique recommended by behaviorism theory to help Sylvia. Applied behavior analysis technique is recommended by behaviorism therapy in the case of major depression. And in the case of Sylvia, this technique will be very helpful. Psychodynamic is also known as dynamic psychology. It is an approach of psychology, which emphasizes on the systematic study of psychological forces. The treatment of  psychological distress psychodynamic therapy to be less sensitive than psychoanalysis treatment. Psychodynamic therapies are basically depending upon theory of inner conflict. Psychodynamic therapy is designed to help patients explore the full range of their emotions, including feeling they may not be aware of. The technique recommended by psychodynamic theory to help Sylvia is Psychoanalytic and interpersonal technique, it is recommended by psychodynamic theory to help people like Sylvia who is struggled with major depression. This approach focuses on the interrelationship of the mind and mental, motivational or emotional forces within the mind that interact to shape a personality. Humanistic psychology is focused on understanding the unconscious motivations that drive behavior, and study the condition while processes that produce behavior. Humanistic psychology emerged during the 1950’s as a reaction to psycho analysis and behaviorism humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual’s potential and stressed the importance of growth and self – actualization. The technique recommended by humanistic theory to help Sylvia is existential technique. If is recommended by humanistic theory to help a person who is in major depression disorder. Personality psychology looks at the patterns of thoughts and feelings that make a person unique. Some of the best known theories of psychology are devoted to the subject of personality. Almost every day we describe and access the personality of the people around us. Whether we realize it or not. These daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psychologist do. Social dominance theory identifies several mechanisms by which hierarchies are developed and maintained. These theories focused on helping us understand and explain social behavior. Social theories are generally centered on specific social phenomenon including prosaically, Social behavior. These are all the theories of psychology that Sylvia could use for this scenario. All the different techniques that she can do. Each different technique helps to deal with her major depression disorder. They each help individually, but when applied together better results could be obtained. Reference Myers, D. (2014). Exploring psychology (9th Ed.). New York: NY: Worth Publishers.

Tasks and Functions of Management

Tasks and Functions of Management Executive Summary As retrieved from Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary; manager is defined as the person who is responsible for managing an organization which is mainly associated with the management which is described as the control and organization of something. (Cambridge University Press, 2008).This assignment gives a good understanding on the roles played by a manager in a management. We are able to understand effectively the do’s and don’t’s briefly on a managerial roles and managements styles for future undertakings. Based from Task 1, the managerial roles and mangement styles is deifined and explained based from an organization im involved on achieving appropriate goals of the organization. Meanwhile, the Task 2 identifies the problems or limitations faced by manager in effective decision making and how it affects the organization and management. This manager’s role and managerial styles with the barriers to effective decision making faced by managers is being explained briefly in few parts which includes the introduction, management and organization, barriers to effective decision making, and also conclusion and recommendation on the task given. The findings consist of understanding about the management, managers and their functions with the roles played by them such as interpersonal roles, informational roles, and also decisional roles. Besides that, the history of the organization with the coordination of effort, common goals or purposes, division of labor and the hierarchy of authority is being discussed in here. Not only that, the barriers types such as personal confidence, confirmation bias, anchoring bias, and illusory correlations is also being discussed for better understanding. Lastly, it can be concluded that, by completing the given task, one can able to identify the important criteria that a manager must consider always in making a decision with suitable recommendations for developing alternative solutions to the occurring problem for the best decision making barriers. Introduction To perform a variety of roles in an organization we need to study the management in order to examine the role that managers expect .These roles were solely developed by a researcher who is;Henry Mintzberg in late 1960s after a careful and in-depth study of executives at work. (Burgaz, 1997) If a manager has to achieve the goal in a organization, he has to follow the ten managerial roles which are divided into three categories. The categories are interpersonal roles, informational roles and decisional roles. The efficiency and effectiveness to manage an organization is the priority progress. Thus manager’s neglect or these processes are executed. The problem might be wrongly defined, or goals misidentified. Insufficient solutions might be generated, or they may have be evaluated incompletely. A satisfying choice compared to maximizing choice may be made. Implementation poorly planned or executed, monitoring may be inadequate or nonexistent. Decision making are influenced by few categories which can be divided to such like; subjective psychological biases, time pressures, and also social realities. 2.0 Management and Organizations The 21st century has brought with it a new workplace, one in which everyone must  adapt to face the rapid challenges and opportunities. The economy has become global and organizations have to transform themselves to serve new customer expectations. Knowledge based and performance driven is the method of the new economy. The themes widely used in the present context area are such related to ‘respect’, participation, empowerment alongside with teamwork and also self management. In the dark light of the above challenges a new kind of leader is needed to guide business through turbulence. Managers in organizations do this task. 2.1 Functions of Management In any organization, the most important issue is management. So, we should plan out things done systematically in order to be efficient and effective. Make sure that the plans are followed and the goals are met. Good management is the fundamental of a business. Maintaining a business is to achieve some success. To be more and more efficient is what almost every organization as well as a corporation and government strives for. Organizations often carry out important decisions based on how different alternatives will be efficient. Despite that, many organizations and managers undergo hard time to understand the difference correlatively between efficiency and effectiveness and often get â€Å"wrapped around the axle† debating semantics rather than actually evaluating the alternatives at hand. (Ted Schneider, 2008) These concepts are often use little consistency and in some areas drastic change lead to be interdependent. This proves that managers are well dedicated and plan system atically. 2.2 Who are Managers Managers are defined as an organized group of people whose purpose is solely to achieve the objectives and desired goals of an organization for the organization’s benefit. To get a better review of the discussed ideas and views expressed by academicians and involved practitioners; that managers are simply known as at the lowest level of management. Then, followed by the middle managers who manage between the first line level and the top level of the organization. Therefore the top level managers who are responsible for making decision and establishing plans and goals that effect the entire organization. 2.3 Managers Task Table 1: 10 Management Roles. Category Roles Interpersonal Roles Figurehead Role Leader Role Liaison Role Informational Roles Monitor Role Disseminator Role Spokesperson Role Decisional Roles Entrepreneur Role Disturbance Handler Role Resource Allocator Role Negotiator Role A manager is someone who coordinates and supervises the work of other people so that goals can be achieved. Besides that, managers too have to carry out additional task such as Planning, Organizing, Leading, and Controlling. These functions provide a useful structure for management knowledge. Firstly, Planning can be defined as striving for goals and immerge plan for coordination purpose. Secondly, Organizing meant by setting up the work formation to achieve goals. Thirdly, Leading is to lead or guide people with the integrity to achieve goals. Finally controlling focusing and supervising the quality of the work. Mintzberg described Managerial work relates to ten roles those are divided into three categories. Firstly interpersonal roles are the figurehead, leader and liaison. Secondly was an informational role which relates to monitor, disseminator and spokesman. Finally is the decisional roles which caters the entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator. Thu s, clearly notify the interpersonal, informational and decisional roles. 2.3.1 Interpersonal Roles Figurehead role perform the ceremonial duties. Leader role motivate and support the workers and Liaison role involve duties with other unit bodies. 2.3.2 Informational Roles Monitor role for environmental issues. Disseminator role is that to exchange or interchange knowledge in their departments. Spokesperson role part their knowledge by sharing information outside their companies. 2.3.3 Decisional Roles Entrepreneur role is to adopt and adapt to change. Disturbance handler role set an alert supervision to clear out any serious problem. Resource allocator collects and handles resources. Lastly, negotiator role compromise with update schedules, current projects, available resources, goals achievements and injecting employees to the company without fail. 2.3.4 Company History Jack Cohen from a market stall in East London founded in 1919. Currently we operate in 12 countries around the world, 530000 employees and serve thousands of customers daily. We are efficient in our sales experience. Nowadays, we believe that we do the right things to satisfy all walks of life that prefers our service. In Malaysia, from 2001 till today, TESCO had been the best Hypermarket. The mangers at TESCO prefer the interpersonal roles to welcome customers warmly, introducing new benefits and support charitable organizations. Besides this, managers motivate and encourage staffs to achieve the objectives. At TESCO, managers regularly acknowledge employees with celebratory lunches and gifts certificates. Moreover the managers exchange ideas outside their units. Evidence shows managers spend most of their sharing ideas and information with other ‘VIP’ groups. 2.4 Management Style Management style is a managerial parlance often used to describe the how of management. It is a function of behavior associated with personality.(McGuire.R, 2005).A way which is used to manage an organization can be referred as management style. Management style is â€Å"the adhesive that binds diverse operations and functions together†. It is the philosophy or set of principles by which the manager capitalizes on the abilities of the workforce.(Nwadukwe Uche.C, 2012).Management style is often mistaken for a procedure on how to do the management framework for doing. A management style is essentially a way of life to operate throughout the organization and to be able to permit an executive to rely on the initiative of the personnel of an entity. The four often used managerial styles in an organization are leadership and management style, autocratic style, democratic style, laissez-faire. In this organization, Tesco; the management choose democratic style to achieve the goals of the organization. Inputs are gathered and decisions as well as the responsibilities are shared is a way of how the democratic style is being implemented. This can be done where the manager ignites a meeting among the team member from the same department to brain storm and to make appropriate decision involving the specified task and to have a faith and trust on the team members to have the capability to develop the appropriate direction to fulfill the decision made. 2.5 An Organization Basically, an organization as known and not necessarily a legal entity, corporation or low liability company(LLC) is a person or group of people intentionally to achieve a common goal. A business organization varies in size from one person to thousands. Therefore essential aspects have to consider about the organization’s goal. These features are explicit; therefore deliberate and recognized or implicit in an operating unrecognized with the term â€Å"behind the scenes. (Koontz.H, 1997) Usually during the strategic planning process, these features are carefully considered and established ideally. Upon completing, well consider deeply on dimensions and concepts that are very common to organizations. The prominent psychologist, all the organizations together share four characteristics which is coordination effort, common goal or purpose, division labor, and hierarchy of authority. 2.5.1 Coordination Effort The well known quotation agrees that two heads are sometimes better than one; Individuals who join force together and be able to coordinate their mental and or physical efforts can accomplish many great and exciting things. (David A.Nadier) Great inventions and sky scrapers were erected by the talent and desire of an individual. Hence, collaboration and coordination only implies with multiple thoughts. 2.5.2 Common Goals or Purposes Managerial force and the Labor force coordinate with mutual interest, it ensures to achieve the target goal of the organization. 2.5.3 Division Labor An organization can use its human resources efficiently by systematically dividing complex tasks into specialized jobs. Division of labor permits in each organization member has to become more and more proficient by repeatedly doing the same assigned specialized task. The advantage of division of labor is well known to all of us. It is better to divide human resources into diversification tasks. When experience and proficiency exceeds, an organization can utilize its human resource to carry out the complex tasks into specialized jobs. Thus, division of labor is a healthy decision that can be implemented. 2.5.4 Hierarchy Of Authority Figure 1: The Hierarchy of Authority in TESCO,Malaysia. Table 2: Acronim of Hierarchy of Aunthority in TESCO,Malaysia. Acronim: AGM Area General Manager SGM Store General Manager TM Trading Manager SM Section Manager If an organization is to achieve the targeted goal, then it should follow a strict and rigid system of management. Thus providing the necessary guidelines and resources which procedure a conductive working environment. A leader should take charge and his commands are followed. Thus, authority should be given to such leaders in order to follow orders effectively and efficiently. Coordination of effort is difficult to achieve without a clear hierarchy of authority. Accountability is mainly enhanced by having such leaders so called ‘managers’ in an organization. 3.0 Barriers to Effective Decision Making Effective decision-making is an interdisciplinary process that involves applying social psychology, group dynamics and management theory (K.Borchardt, 2010). A vital part in making a good decision is actually checking the problems which can be solved by one. However, neglected difficulties, such as cognitive biases, often cause the most challenges in making effective decisions, which ends up making poor decisions. These mental barriers are often subconscious. Cognitive biases present both in individuals and teams often choose options and making decisions. However, there are ways to identify and leap over problems. The most important fact is that to ignore and break off from these barriers such as the personal overconfidence, confirmation bias and anchoring bias. 3.1 Personal Overconfidence Psychologists diligently have shown that human beings are precisely systematically overconfident in making judgments†. (A.Roberto, 2009) Personal overconfidence leads to poor judgment and often faces high-risk decisions for not prepared for any factors. This is more common to high performers who are very self-confident and ready to bear the risk. 3.2 Confirmation Bias A contractor who possesses a lengthy history of good work performance and a good working relationship can also lead to confirmation bias. In an organization groups decision making encourages confirmation bias. 3.3 Anchoring Bias Anchoring bias is the term used for the notion that we sometimes allow an initial reference point so it could distort our estimate. (S.Nickerson, 1998) Anchoring bias can occur when negotiating renewal of a contract or negotiating a new contract. Anchoring bias can also occur when the cost of supplying goods or services specified in the contract changes. This misjudge can lead to losses for the organization which can affect the whole managerial management. 3.4 Illusory Correlation Illusory correlation can be best described as the fact that we sometimes jump into conclusions about the relationship which is between two variables with no relationship exists.(Borchard, 2010). As an example, a manager whom hires someone under him may place too much reliance on a job candidate’s verbal presentation skills, believing there is a strong correlation of these skills with the skills required for excellent job performance. Second rate candidates are more preferably to be selected or hired through this illusory correlation. 4.0 Recommendation This task helps the student to understand fully on how manager should make effective decision making and it is recommended that managers need to focus on the relevant and irrelevant considerations as well as understand fully the act and consequences arise from the decision made. Besides that, other effective decision making theories are also suggested to improve the quality of management and managerial styles. Those theories are such like: Rational Decision Making Tradeoff Behaviour Decision Making Psychology Resistance to Change 5.0 Conclusion Eventually there are many roles in an organization which involve ways to handle various situations according to their management. In an organization managers can describe the managerial roles used to familiarize with the management style so they can achieve the goals of the organization. At this moment the managers can handle or face any barriers by making decision very effectively. In this situation, we should learn how to make decision very carefully and dont be so overconfidence in order to improve ourselves in a more effective decision making. References A.Roberto Michael The Art Of Critical Decision Making [Book].- 2009.- p. 56. Borchard John K. Overcoming Barriers to Effective Decision Making [Book].- [s.l.]: Contract Management, 2010. Burgaz Assit.Prof.Dr.Berrin Managerial Roles Approach And The Prominent Study Of Henry Mintzberg 1960 [Journal].- 1997.- p. 2. Cambridge University Press Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary [Book].- [s.l.]: Cambridge, 2008.- Vol. third edition. David A.Nadier Michael L.Thusman,Nina G.Hatvany Managing Organization[Journal]// Little ,Brown And Company Boston Tronto.- p. 42. Koontz.H Heinz Weihrich Managerial Roles Approach And The Prominent Study OfHenry Mintzberg 1960 [Journal].- 1997.- p. 10. McGuire.R Which Management Styleto Use [Journal].- London: The Pharmaceutical Journal, 2005.- 275: Vol. 9. Nwadukwe Uche.C Court Oggele Timinepere Management Styles and Organizational Effectiveness : An Appraisal of Private Enterprises in Eastern Nigeria [Journal].- Nigeria: American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 2012.- no.9: Vol. 2. S.Nickerson Raymond Confirmation Bias : A Libiquitous Phenomenon Occurring InMany Guises [Journal]// Review of Clinical Psychology.- 1998.- p. 58. Ted Schneider Brian Leslie Efficienc Vs Effectiveness : Defining The Difference[Journal]// Switch Point LLC.- 2008.- p. 1. Weblite Tesco Homepage [Online]// http://www.tesco.com.my/.- 09 08, 2014. APPENDIX Principles and Practices in ManagementPage | 1

A Government Older Than Its Country Essay -- Greek and Roman democracy

Although almost everything in American architecture, language, military concepts, and ideals can be traced back to both Roman and Greek cultures, the single most influential concept that has been retained from Rome and Greece is government set-up. Either the direct democracy of Greece or the elective democracy of Rome can be seen in modern America. Although seen more and more rarely in the United States, direct democracy still exists today. Direct democracy means that each person votes on decisions individually, as opposed to representative democracy in which an elected individual makes, or helps make decisions. This can be traced back to ancient Athens. When farmers and the working class became angered by the laws passed by Greece's wealthy, Great Council, they pleaded for demos kratia, which translates to democracy in English, and can be defined as; government by the people, " Gradually, Athenian leaders agreed that more Greeks should be allowed to participate in the Great Council's decision-making process"( dsusd.k12.ca.us). Currently, this form of government, which was admonished by the founders of the United States Constitution, is not seen frequently in the United States. Few examples can be seen, such as town meetings, voting in parent teacher associations, or other small town decisions where the amount of votes are abl e to be counted by hand in a short meeting. However, since many believe that The concept of democracy was started in ancient Greece, but the system held what one may even relate to the checks and balances of modern America. One of the most notable of these was The Boule, " The boule was a group of 500 men, 50 from each of ten Athenian tribes, who served on the Council for one year"( history.com). This ... ...ent/>. The Editors of Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. "Roman Republic (ancient state [509 BC-27 BC])." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, 30 Dec. 2013. Web. 30 Apr. 2014. . History.com, Staff. "Ancient Greek Democracy." History.com. A&E Television Networks, 1 Jan. 1996. Web. 1 May 2014. . "Sources of Ideas That Shaped The American Plan of Government." . Desert Sands Unified School District, n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014. . Trueman, Chris. "How was Rome governed." How was Rome governed. N.p., 1 Jan. 2000. Web. 1 May 2014. .

Aestheticism: Philosophy of Beauty Essay

Aestheticism is presently defined by the Encyclopedia Britannica as â€Å"intended to designate a scientific doctrine or account of beauty, in nature and art, and for the enjoyment and originating beauty which exists in man†. In other words, aestheticism is a philosophy of beauty. An Aesthete has a great appreciation for nature. One may look at an object, place, or person and perceive it a different way than another person may perceive it. For an Aesthete to obtain pleasure, â€Å"it is the perspectives of perception that is necessary to an understanding of both appreciation and creation†. Aestheticism is a very deep and meaningful philosophy whose meaning has been changed and interpreted by many historical figures such as Alexander Baumgarten, Immanuel Kant, and Oscar Wilde. The philosophical discipline of aesthetics did not receive its name until 1735, when the twenty-one year old Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten introduced it in his Halle master’s thesis to mean episteme aisthetike, or the science of what is sensed and imagined. Initially, the focus of aestheticism was not so much on art as it was on the experience of, and judgments about, beauty in all its forms. Aesthetics is necessarily interdisciplinary and may be interpretive, prescriptive, descriptive, or a combination of these. The younger Baumgarten started at the university at sixteen (in 1730), and studied theology, philology, poetry, rhetoric, and philosophy, especially Leibniz, whose philosophy was not banned. He began teaching there himself in 1735, upon the acceptance of his thesis on poetry, and published his Metaphysics in 1739. In 1740, the same year as he published his Ethics, he was called to a professorship — or more precisely, ordered to accept it — at another Prussian university, in Frankfurt an der Oder. The first volume of his Aesthetica appeared in 1750. It was written in Latin, like Baumgarten’s other works, and was the first work ever to use the name of the new discipline as a title. The next year, however, Baumgarten’s health began to decline and a second volume of the Aestheticacame out only in 1758, under pressure from the publisher. Baumgarten’s Meditations on Poetry conclude with his famous introduction of the term â€Å"aesthetics†: â€Å"The Greek philosophers and the Church fathers have always carefully distinguished between the aistheta and the noeta,†that is, between objects of sense and objects of thought, and while the latter, that is, â€Å"what can be cognized through the higher faculty† of mind, are â€Å"the object of logic, the aistheta are the subject of the episteme aisthetike or AESTHETICS,† the science of perception. However, in the 18th century, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant defined aestheticism as both â€Å"the analysis of taste† and â€Å"the analysis of sensible cognition or intuition†. Immanuel Kant was a Prussian philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figure of modern philosophy. He argued that human concepts and categories structure our view of the world and its laws, and that reason is the source of morality. One part Kant’s philosophy of aestheticism was the â€Å"Deduction of Taste†, which instilled that everything interesting and fundamental happened in the formation of concepts, or in the receiving of intuitions. But now Kant argues that judgment itself, as a faculty, has an fundamental principle that governs it. This principle asserts the purposiveness of all phenomena with respect to our judgment. In other words, it assumes in advance that everything we experience can be tackled by our powers of judgment. Normally, we don’t even notice that this assumption is being made, we just apply concepts, and be done with it. But in the case of the beautiful, we do notice. This is because the beautiful draws particular attention to its purposiveness; but also because the beautiful has no concept of a purpose available, so that we cannot just apply a concept and be done with it. Instead, the beautiful forces us to grope for concepts that we can never find. And yet, nevertheless, the beautiful is not an alien and disturbing experience – on the contrary, it is pleasurable. The principle of purposiveness is satisfied, but in a new and unique way. For Kant, the other basic type of aesthetic experience is the sublime. The sublime names experiences like violent storms or huge buildings which seem to overwhelm us; that is, we feel we ‘cannot get our head around them’. This is either mainly ‘mathematical’ – if our ability to intuit is overwhelmed by size (the huge building) – or ‘dynamical’ – if our ability to will or resist is overwhelmed by force (e. g. the storm). The problem for Kant here is that this experience seems to directly contradict the principle of the purposiveness of nature for our judgment. And yet, Kant notes, one would expect the feeling of being overwhelmed to also be accompanied by a feeling of fear or at least discomfort, whereas, the sublime can be a pleasurable experience. In contrast, Oscar Wilde prefaced his novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray, with a reflection on art, the artist, and the utility of both. After careful scrutiny, he concludes: â€Å"All art is quite useless† (Wilde 4). In this one sentence, Wilde encapsulates the complete principles of the Aesthetic Movement popular in Victorian England. That is to say, real art takes no part in molding the social or moral identities of society, nor should it. Art should be beautiful and pleasure its observer, but to imply further-reaching influence would be a mistake. The explosion of aesthetic philosophy in fin-de-siecle English society, as exemplified by Oscar Wilde, was not confined to merely art, however. Rather, the proponents of this philosophy extended it to life itself. Here, aestheticism advocated whatever behavior was likely to maximize the beauty and happiness in one’s life, in the tradition of hedonism. To the aesthete, the ideal life mimics art; it is beautiful, but quite useless beyond its beauty, concerned only with the individual living it. Aesthetics found that through their great interest in beauty, pleasure that is derived from objects of art is more beautiful than other pleasures. Overall, many philosophers have interpreted the principle of aestheticism in their own ways. Without aestheticism, the deep understanding we now have of the connection of our lives with all forms of art would not be possible. Therefore, after centuries of conceptual making, aestheticism remains as a very complex subject which any poetic heart would be delighted to learn for the benefit of further understanding the purpose for the existence of art. Art through music, paintings, dance, and performance are all unique, but alike in one way: they are products of an artist’s ability, and desire, to create beauty. Works Cited Burnham, Douglas. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Immanuel Kant: Aesthetics. n. d. 9 February 2014 . Duggan, Patrick. The Conflict Between Aestheticism and Morality in Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Darian Gray. n. d. 9 February 2014 . Guyer, Paul. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 18th Century German Aesthetics. 16 January 2007. 9 February 2014 . Rohlf, Michael. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Immanuel Kant. 20 May 2010. 9 February 2014 .